2.+The+Renaissance

= = toc =Resources for the Renaissance:= It is an exhibit of art showing general knowledge about Africa in the 1500s, Africans in Christian art, slavery, issues of color in the 1500s, free people, and African diplomats, merchants, and rulers. It is well worth reading the overview of this exhibit and looking at the images. ||
 * || Resource: || Annotation: ||
 * || Africans during the Renaissance || This is a link to an art exhibit at the Walters Art Museum in Baltimore.

=Terms Chapter 14:= Here are the terms for chapter 14 - The Renaissance and The Age of Exploration Due 9-7-12

Directions: there are two sets of terms in two charts - do a TOTAL of 5 terms 1. from the textbook - complete 2-3 of these terms 2. NOT in the textbook but the AP assumes you know them - complete 2-3 of these terms

NEEDS WORK - If I want to see some additions I put comments in red.

Textbook terms: || Who or What, where, when, why it is important: || Your name: || Believed both in the importance of the contemplative life and the active life Believed in the importance of studying history and literature— the study of human thought and action Some Christians took Muslim ideas and Muslims took Christian ideas as a result of the constant war and diffusion of ideas through the war. Also the wars elicited hatred between the Muslims and Christians that would last for generations. The loss of jews also hurt the Spanish economy amd as a result of gold elsewhere, no strong business enviroment was present. || Moshe Markowitz || 2. In 1471, Ivan defeated Novgorod in war. Additionally in 1477, he put an end to Novgorod’s government. In order to prevent any attacks from the people in Novgorod, he moved many Novgorod families to lands around Moscow, so that the Novgorod people will forget about their freedom in the past. 3. Ivan had complete rights over any property in his land. Because of Ivan and other tsars, Muscovy was a despotic government. 4. During the 15th century, tsars were the only people who defended the Russian Orthodox Church from Islam and Roman Catholicism. 5. Not only did Ivan cause Muscovy to thrive in building states, but they also expanded into other continents such as Africa, the Americas and Asia. || Ezra Splaver || - He conquered the Andean highlands. - In 1509 he sailed to the Americas. - in 1522 was his first attempt to explore western south america because he heard that there was gold there. - He led his first expedition in 1524 to conquer peru he failed however due to lack of provisions and bad weather. - In 1526 he led his second expedition and in 1528 he found many precious metals and goods. - In 1530 he led another expedition yet was forced to move inland when he saw natives on the coast. Pizarro was able to capture the native emperor and held him for randsom but he killed him instead. - He died in 1541. || Ariel Bugay || 2. In 1504, a French fisherman traveled through the Northwest Passage and made it to Newfoundland. 3. People in France continued to go through the Northwest Passage, although the harsh climate and the Indians in Canada prevented people from settling there. 4. The Northwest Passage tremendously impacted France in the 17th century because during that time, they were able to successfully settle in North America. 5. Therefore, they had power over a large amount of land in Canada and modern-day United States. || Ezra Splaver || - He gained most of his power from the Italian war where his military was successful - He opposed the Protestant Reformation pushing for the assembly of the Council of Trent which began the Counter Reformation and Spain was saved from fighting. - He oversaw spanish colonization in america and the overtaking of the Aztecs' - His empire was constantly under attack especially by France. - He died in 1558. || Ariel Bugay ||
 * Hunt Chapter 14
 * ||  || Complete approximately 2 of these terms: ||
 * The Renaissance || * the period of “rebirth” in western Europe after the Middle Ages, during which Europeans sought the knowledge of art and classical culture.
 * a cultural transformation beginning in Italy and spreading north to other European countries
 * the eventual extension of European control to non-European territories
 * began in the fifteenth century and continued until (roughly) the seventeenth century
 * culture became integrated with political power
 * the concept of individualism emerged as citizens strived to be recognized for their achievements in the arts and in literature
 * Italy and other European countries were fueled by the quest for glory and honor to expand their control
 * acted as a bridge between the Dark Ages and the Modern era
 * inspired many geographical and intellectual discoveries
 * Europe wished to transcend the bleak Medieval Period, thus relentlessly endeavoring to grow as a whole and to stimulate a more modern and classic age. || Daniella Cohen ||
 * Humanism || ## an intellectual movement which focused on ancient history and arts and tried to emulate them
 * 1) they supported the liberal arts
 * 2) very diverse group of people
 * 3) they were obsessed with the ancient world
 * 4) they obsessed over Greek and Latin writings; especially Plato’s
 * 5) they saw a congruency between Plato’s ideas and modern Christian philosophy, and therefore did not see a problem with studying ancient culture
 * 6) the humanist revolution influenced schools’ curriculum
 * 7) started in Italy and then spread to the rest of Europe; specifically Florence and Venice
 * 8) started around 1400
 * 9) reinvigorated Greek and Latin
 * 10) why do we care? || Jonathan Attias ||
 * Cosimo di Medici || * 1389-1464
 * He was a wealthy Italian
 * He sponsored the Platonic Academy in Florence
 * Platonic Academy: a discussion group dedicated to the study of Plato and his followers
 * He commissioned Marsilio Ficino’s, the head of the academy, Latin translation of Plato’s works (the first ever complete translation)
 * Through his academy, Cosimo had a huge impact of the Renaissance’s intellectual aspect || Jessica Griff ||
 * Petrarch (1304-1373) || * An Italian scholar, poet, one of the first humanists— known as the “Father of Humanism,” and considered by many to be the “Father of the Renaissance”
 * Born in the Tuscan city of Arezzo and lived in Avignon and surrounding Carpentras
 * Studied law at the University of Montpellier and Bologna on his father’s accord but left to focus on literature anyway
 * Was a devout Catholic and one of the first to believe in a life of religiosity //and// culture/humanism (talents, opinions, business— that man should use his God-given abilities to his fullest potential), blending humanism and religiosity.
 * Expressed his ideas in his works, which influenced the society of that time in philosophy and in the development of literature. His influence kick-started the humanistic beliefs of exploring man’s creative and intellectual abilities. This is extremely important because when people began following these theories, they began heightening their culture while following Christianity, thus, ending the Medieval Ages and beginning the Renaissance.
 * Best known for his Italian poetry, though all of his works affected the literature of that day. Many famous writers modeled their works after his. Though some of his most of famous works were written in Italian such as the //Canzoniere// and the //Trionfi,// Petrarch mainly wrote in Latin
 * Pietro Bembo fashioned his model for the modern Italian language after Petrarch || Kayla Petrover ||
 * Johannes Gutenburg || * Who: He was a goldsmith that invented a device used for printing called the mobile type, in order to create a more efficient way to manufacture books.
 * Where: He came from Germany, and the use of his invention spread all around Europe.
 * When: He lived between the years 1400 and 1470.
 * Why it is important: The importance of the newfound system of printing was that this breakthrough caused many authors to be able to write their books faster versus the previously used system, hand writing.
 * Many different ideas were published, causing an advancement in learning.
 * This is important because knowledge could be easily spread throughout Europe, even among peasants and common people. Before the printing press, people had to rely on sponsorship and the church.
 * There was a lot of independence from the church because of the new system.
 * Also, this invention was the first step toward creating more modern technological systems such as the typewriter and the computer. || Michali Mazor ||
 * Jacob Burckhardt || * He popularized the term Renaissance with his book //The Civilization of the Renaissance in Italy//
 * He was a professor at the University of Baset
 * And lived in during 1860
 * His philosophy included the belief that the renaissance was a time of secular development and freedom of the individual to be creative and less churchly influences
 * His philosophies have been greatly criticized and revised || Maia Groman ||
 * Leonardo da Vinci || ## lived from 1452 to 1519
 * 1) painter, architect, sculptor, engineer, and inventor
 * 2) he was very interested in science and especially human anatomy
 * 3) he painted and sculpted in extreme detail
 * 4) many of his works were never completed
 * 5) his most popular works include //La Gioconda// (commonly known as the Mona Lisa), //The Last Supper//, and //The Vitruvian Man//
 * 6) throughout his life he worked for many powerful people
 * 7) he invented technologies that benefited the people of the time
 * 8) he was one of the most important artists during the Renaissance - was he famous during the Renaissance? Why are his key/popular works so important, what do they symbolize? || Jonathan Attias ||
 * Botticelli || * Sandro Botticelli was a painter back in the Renaissance era.
 * He was from Italy and he belonged to the Florentine School.
 * He worked under the patronage of Lorenzo de Medici.
 * He was a painter during the "golden age" of art in the Renaissance.
 * He was not famous until about the 19th century.
 * Some of his most famous pieces include, //Birth of Venus// and //Primavera.//
 * Botticelli was an influential figure in the artistic movements during the Renaissance. || Talia Blumofe ||
 * Jan van Eyck || * a renaissance painter distinguished in the genre of realism in the field of portraits
 * the realism of his paintings was unsurpassed until the development of photography
 * he was from the Low Countries and contributed to the spread of the portraiture of the middle class in the fifteenth century. || Cherie Landa ||
 * Giovanni Pico della Mirandola__,__ //On the Dignity of Man// || * Italy 1463- 1494
 * He was a wealthy philosopher
 * Was friends with Ficino a very famous platonic philosopher and wrote about the universal man
 * He wrote //On the Dignity of Man-// he exalted man's creation and free will, composing words he felt G-d would use
 * He flet man was the most important thing in the world and were capable of making a name for themselves
 * To bring together religion and modern philosophy he said that we must have faith in G-d and that all men have jobs of their own to do
 * He glorified man and displayed the positive side of the renaissance || Maia Groman ||
 * Universal man__,__ //L’uomo universale// (ideal man, ideal woman) || * The universal man, or the L’uomo universale is an ideal person, one whose intellectual expertise is quite varied.
 * A universal man is also referred to as polymath.
 * The concept preceded the phrase by many millennia.
 * The term is often related to another, a Renaissance Man, which means about the same thing.
 * The inspiration for polymath came from great minds in the 17th century, like Leonardo da Vinci and Galileo.
 * The concept embodied the spreading idea of humanism and empowerment at the time.
 * || Talia Blumofe ||
 * Ghiberti and the Baptistry doors || * 1378-1455
 * Italian sculptor of the early Renaissance
 * He won a contest to decorate bronze doors for the San Giovanni Baptist church.
 * Ghiberti portrayed in his art the new perspective that art is a mirror of nature. Art must be a depiction of what the eye perceives. Renaissance art is known to be three-dimensional because that is the way things really are. They criticized Gothic architecture for being too flat.
 * With his doors, Ghiberti created a sense of depth and space within the bronze
 * His doors were so beautiful and inspiring, Michaelangelo named them “The Gates of Paradise”
 * Ghiberti’s creation of these doors signifies the shift into the humanistic era. While still being true to religion and his faith, Ghiberti managed to express a new technique in the arts. He was able to show that one can still be religious while being advanced in arts and technologies || Jessica Griff ||
 * Polyphonic || * Music that consists of two or more melodies performed simultaneously.
 * Originated during the 12th century (Middle Ages), but developed throughout the years up until the end of the Renaissance.
 * Polyphony was originally used in sacred songs during masses
 * During the Great Schism (1378-1417), when the popes were located in Avignon, known for its dynamic music making, the sacred polyphony was influenced by the secular.
 * Some people, like the clergy, believed it was bad to mix to secular with the sacred.
 * Others believed that just like the different melodies blended together in polyphonic music, so too, the two themes—secular and sacred—should unite in synchronization. || Hod Marks ||
 * Masaccio (1401-1428) || * The first amazing painter of the Quattrocento period of the Italian Renaissance—even considered to be the best of his time by Vasari
 * His real name was Tommaso di Ser Giovanni di Simone but he took “maso” from his first name Tommaso and humorously made his name Masaccio meaning messy Tom
 * Was born in Castel San Giovanni di Altura (nowadays San Giovanni Valdarno)
 * Was known for his incredible realistic style, his use of the linear perspective (he was the first to use this method), his ability to capture movements and express the dimensions in his works, and his use of a naturalistic mode rather than the common the gothic style and elaborate ornamentation
 * Little is known of his training but he probably moved to Florence and became an apprentice. He was marked as a master in the painters guild in Florence in 1422
 * He is known for working with his friend Masolino, although they split up later on.
 * Made many famous paintings including //The Expulsion from the Garden of Eden// and the //Holy Trinity//
 * He was important because he influenced the art of the Renaissance significantly by using the linear perspective and techniques such as vanishing points. His departure from the gothic style and elaborate ornamentation also affected the style of his time.
 * Little is known about his young death at 26 || Kayla Petrover ||
 * Donatello || # Lived from 1431-1506
 * 1) One of the first major sculptors who were called artists and not artisans
 * 2) Donatello’s sculptures had Ancient Greek and Roman elements combined with Modern elements
 * 3) Cosimo de’ Medici, one of the most powerful men at the time, was a patron to Donatello, because he was inspired to excavate ancient art similar to Donatello’s style
 * 4) A pioneer in Renaissance art and culture, showed that an artist’s “genius” was priceless, and that beautiful art should be displayed everywhere || Avi Alpert ||
 * Giotto || * lived from 1266- 1337
 * he was an infamous artist (and architect) from Florence
 * he stressed three dimensionality, illusional space, and human emotion in his paintings
 * he succeeded in bringing the natural and heavenly realms together by uniting earthly forms with religious meaning
 * he greatly influenced the renaissance by touching peoples’ emotions and thoughts through his artwork || adina hoffman ||
 * Jan van Eyck ||  ||   ||
 * Dowry Fund || * Established in 1425 in Italy
 * It was a public fund that would raise state revenues and was a major investment instrument for the upper class
 * When a female was born, usually the wealthy Florentine fathers opened an account at the Dowry Fund
 * These funds would gain interest and by the time the daughter was ready to marry, the fathers hoped the account would have enough money to marry more prominent men.
 * The establishment of the Dowry Fund definitely transformed the competitive marriage market.
 * The fund shows that during this time, marriages were more for political power, wealth, and a way to consolidate social hierarchy || Jessica Griff ||
 * Niccolo Machiavelli, //The Prince// || * Who/What: Machiavelli was a philosopher that had certain theories about politics and the power they contained. He wrote all of his philosophies in a book called //The Prince. //
 * //The Prince //discusses his belief that power, although a necessity in regard to running a country, could only have a positive impact on a country through the use of a republic.
 * Machiavelli writes about certain principles explaining how a ruler should remain in power.
 * He says that there is a specific job a ruler that was born into a royal family that has ruled for a long time and has specific rules laid out in front of him. He has to maintain the same standards and not change any of the institutions that his predecessor created.
 * According to Machiavelli, the job of a new king was a lot harder, for he had to establish his kingdom and stabilize it before he could build up a kingdom that would last.
 * Where: He was from Florence, in what would be present day Italy.
 * When: He lived in the years 1469-1527.
 * Why is it important: The significance of this book was that had a major political impact on all of Europe.
 * The time period before the Renaissance was focused on the religious aspect of life, and that the papacy was in control of Europe. However, //The Prince// discussed the way rulers, as individuals, were meant to behave. They were supposed to rule for the sake of ruling, and not care about any specific morals.
 * <span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">The monarchs cared more about the people following their rules versus following the church, which showed that the secular world was more in control now, whereas the church was the very center of the European existence before.
 * <span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial,sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: arial,helvetica,sans-serif;">Machiavelli wrote this treatise in order to demonstrate to the ruler at that time, Lorenzo de Medici, that he knew how the ruling system worked, and that he would be a great advisor to him . || Michali Mazor ||
 * Oligarchy || * a small group of people who control the government, often rich or of high status
 * often ruled by powerful families
 * limits monarchial power as an oligarchy inspires single rulers to share power
 * became popular in Italian city-states during the Renaissance
 * Around the mid-fifteenth century, Venice was threatened by external conflicts and powers. Thus an oligarchy of aristocratic merchants emerged to bring stability to Venice and benefit its citizens.
 * Merchant oligarchy in Florence as well which eventually transformed into a republic under the Medici family
 * The Italian oligarchs often patronized the arts, contributing to some of the great masterpieces of the Renaissance || Daniella Cohen ||
 * Duchy || * The territory of a duke or duchess
 * There were famous duchies during the Renaissance such as the ducky of Massa, Carrara, and Mila.
 * Different Duchies played a role because they became a fight for ownership and power.
 * Certain lords desired certain pieces of lands—the duchies; therefore, these duchies led to some territorial conflicts during the Renaissance era. || Yitzchak kaminetsky ||
 * Francesco Sforza || * Lived from 1401- 1466
 * He was the duke of Milan and a general who had a great impact in 15th century Italian politics
 * He became very close friends with the ruler of Florence, Cosimo di Medici
 * This paved an alliance called the Treaty of Lodi which brought great stability in Italy
 * He is also remembered for being a big patron to the arts
 * He followed a foreign policy based on the concept of the balance of power and he led extensive international relations outside the peninsula to counter any threatening states
 * Because of his policies, Sforza succeeded in keeping foreign powers from taking over Italian politics for the rest of the century || Adina Hoffman ||
 * Treaty of Lodi || * Also known as the Peace of Lodi, this treaty was formed on April 9th, 1454 to end the war of succession between Milan and Venice.
 * Power was divided into the hands of the five dominating territories in the Italian Peninsula- Milan, Naples, Florence, Venice, and the Papal States; yet the treaty recognized Francesco Sforza, the Milanese duchy as leader and restored the northern territories of Italy back to Venice.
 * Peace lasted for about 40 years.
 * A 25-year mutual defense pact was created to maintain existing boundaries and an Italian League was also formed. || Rachel Petrover ||
 * War of the Roses || * English civil wars (1460-1485) which started when Henry VI, a mentally unstable king elected after the Hundred Years War was unable to control the country
 * Richard of York rebelled against Henry VI, his son was crowned Edward IV
 * The War of Roses did not greatly affect civilians of farmland; the battles were short and only affected the soldiers
 * The English economy was still flourishing during the war
 * Population increase benefited the farmers and the nobility and were not affected by the war || Avi Alpert ||
 * Isabella and Ferdinand || * Isabella was the queen of Castile who married Ferdinand of Aragon in 1469
 * After marrying, the civil wars over the royal succession in the Iberian Monarchies started diminishing
 * This united strength between Castile and Aragon brought the reconquista closer with a final crusade against the Muslims
 * Within this crusade, they formed a Catholic Monarch throughout the Iberian Peninsula
 * This crusade occurred throughout Iberia in during the late 15th century
 * This act was significant because Catholicism and religion became a way of state authority and political, along with cultural, unification || Brett Wolff ||
 * The Inquisition || * Once Isabella and Ferdinand established strict Catholic rule in Spain, they designated a section of the government to interview //conversos//, or Jewish converts
 * These conversos were suspected of secretly keeping Judaism while pretending to be Catholic, and were persecuted thoroughly
 * By 1492, all Jews were expelled from Spain or forced to convert
 * Some conversos were forced to make public confessions, or an auto da fé
 * Penalties included monetary fines, torturing, or burning at the stake
 * The formerly vibrant Jewish community in Spain which supported the economy suddenly vanished and prevented Spain from flourishing || Avi Alpert ||
 * The Reconquista || * The Reconquista was a time when the Christians drove the Muslims out of the Iberian Peninsula. The Christians began the Reconquista with a small amount of land and slowly regaining strength and with it, constant victory over the Muslims. At Granada, the Christians won the last battle for land on the Iberian Peninsula, ending the Reconquista.
 * The Muslims were lead by Al- Andalus's dynasty and the Christian kingdoms that fought the Muslims were Galicia, Asturias, Navarre, Leon, Portugal, Castile, and Aragon.
 * The Christians fought over the Iberian Peninsula, modern day Spain and Portugal
 * The constant battles of the Reconquista began in 772 at Covadonga and ended in 1492 at Granada.
 * First of all, the war caused economic crisis and because of this Jews were expelled in order to confiscate their land and possessions.
 * Granada || * Granada was the place of the final battle of the Reconquista.
 * The Christian siege that went on for months ended on January 2, 1492. Aragon and Castile's forces fought for the Christian cause, devastating the Muslim Emirate of Granada.
 * Al- Andalus's former Moorish kingdom that once ruled over the entire Iberian Peninsula was led by Emir Muhammad XII of Granada.
 * Eventually, the Muslim Emirate of Granada had no choice but to surrender.
 * The battle of Granada was the last Muslim owned city in the Iberian Peninsula, and with the Christian Victory, Muslim rulership was expelled.
 * Granada is located in the present-day Spain, and its culture demonstrates the spread of ideas through the Reconquista. Without theReconquista Granada would not have such a big Christian population, it would be as inhabited by Muslims as Iran. || Moshe Markowitz ||
 * Conversos || * Jewish converts to Catholicism, living in the Iberian peninsula
 * Were suspected for practicing Judaism in secret while outwardly pretending to be Christian
 * Converted during the 14th and 15th centuries
 * The Inquisition was appointed by the Spanish monarchs in 1478 to control the conversos and to inspect their religious practices
 * Those who were originally Christian resented the fact that conversos had places in society
 * The conversos were not treated as well as “Old Christians” and were monitored very carefully by the Inquisition
 * Most did not have legal equality. Could not hold places in office
 * Punishments for conversos who clung to their Jewish roots included public confession, fines, and burning at the stake
 * Became targets of pogroms and attacks
 * The aversion to conversos eventually led to the Jews’ expulsion from Spain, which at the time held a very large Jewish community. || Daniella Cohen ||
 * Auto-de-fe || * this took place during the Inquisition
 * ritual of public confession
 * a Jewish convert accused of practicing Judaism might need to make this confession
 * this was the least severe punishment for a Jewish convert accused of practicing Judaism while a more severe punishment would be death
 * Jews living in Spain were forced to either convert to Christianity or be exiled out of Spain || Emily Firestone ||
 * Pracmatic Sanction of Bourges ||  ||   ||
 * Gallicanism || * The religious idea that the authority of the local monarch or government is higher than the pope for local rule
 * It is the rejection of ultramontanism- the policy that the pope has the supreme power over everything and everybody
 * Kings would even appoint the local bishops
 * It originated with the Roman Catholic clergy that wanted the restrictions on the authority of the papacy
 * In 1438, King Charles VII at the Sanction of Bourges, established the authority of the local church councils over the pope || Dani Ditchek ||
 * Matthias Corvinus || * Hungarian King
 * temporarily merged Hungary and Bohemia
 * supported humanism and the arts
 * started a library in Hungary
 * he expanded his empire until his death when the council who had power over the kings did not allow his son to continue expanding his empire || Emily Firestone ||
 * Ivan III || 1. After the collapse of the Mongol power over Muscovy, Ivan III was the first prince in Muscovy to become emperor. Therefore, he took the title of tsar.
 * Tsar || * The term used for a Russian emperor
 * Comes from the word Caesar meaning supreme ruler
 * Supreme ruler with approval from the pope
 * Ivan III was the first Muscovite prince to claim a majestic title, calling himself a tsar || Dani Ditchek ||
 * Marco Polo || * Marco Polo was a Venetian Merchant traveler living from September 15, 1254- January 9th, 1324.
 * Along with his father and uncle Niccolo and Mafeo, he embarked on a 24-year expedition to Asia exploring the unknown land to introduce central Asia and China to the Europeans. His travels far surpassed earlier explorers and travelled beyond Mongolia to China and met Kublai Khan.
 * Many of his discoveries and expeditions were recorded in his book //II Milione.// His explorations were what inspired Christopher Columbus to embark on his journey to the New World.
 * Upon his arrival, Marco learned that Venice was at war with Genoa and was imprisoned and read of his findings to his cellmates. In 1299, he was finally released and became a wealthy merchant. || Rachel Petrover ||
 * Prince Henry the Navigator || * Born in 1394 in Porto (Oporto), Portugal.
 * Was the third son of King John I (king of Portugal)
 * When he turned 21, Henry, with the help of his father and brothers, attacked the Muslim port of Ceutha (north Morocco)
 * After they won the attack in 1415, Henry was inspired to explore Africa because Europeans did not know much about it.
 * He wanted to find the limits of the Muslim world so he could defeat them.
 * He also wanted to find the legendary Christian empire of Prester John (a king that was said to rule a Christian nation among the Muslims and Pagans in “the East”).
 * Around 1418-1420, Henry started the first school of navigation (for sailing).
 * People trained in science, map-making and navigation in this school in order to sail down the west of Africa.
 * Up until Henry’s time, Cape Bojador was the most southern point known to Europeans on Western Coast of Africa. Thanks to Henry, the following noteworthy discoveries were made:
 * In 1427, Concalo Velho discovered the Azores (9 volcanic islands west of Portugal).
 * In 1434, Gil Eanes (commander of one of Henry’s expeditions) became the first European to pass Cape Bojador.
 * In 1488, Barolomeu Dias sailed all the way to the southern tip of Africa
 * In 1498, Vasco de Gama became the first sailor to travel from Portugal to India || Hod Marks ||
 * Bartholomew Dias || * he sailed the winds in the South Atlantic to the Cape of Good Hope in 1487-1488
 * appointed by King John II of Portugal to sail around the tip of africa in the hope of finding a trade route to India
 * he was the first known European to have sailed around the southernmost tip of Africa
 * he was a nobleman of the Portuguese royal household as well as a knight of the royal court
 * he opened up the possibility of sailing //around// Africa to not only other navigators, but the rest of Europe as well || Cherie Landa ||
 * Vasco de Gama ||  || Kayla Gross ||
 * Ferdinand Magellan || * Ferdinand Magellan sailed from Spain in 1519.
 * He was a famous Portuguese sailor who traveled in search of the East Indies.
 * He had five ships that all went to retrieve spices from the East Indie Islands.
 * He accidentally arrived at Argentina, and on the way to the real destination a storm destroyed two of their ships.
 * Magellan then went to Chile, Guam and the Philippines before he died, never making it to the East Indies.
 * He used the new seafaring opportunities brought on by the Renaissance to attempt overseas trading. || Talia Blumofe ||
 * Christopher Columbus || * A Spanish explorer born in Italy in 1451
 * Columbus had a theory that the world was not a flat surface; rather, it was round.
 * He persuaded Ferdinand and Isabella, the Spanish monarchs at the time, to sponsor an expedition, going west from Europe in search of Asia to prove his theory.
 * In 1492, he set sail with other men on three small ships called the Nina, the Pinta, and the Santa Maria.
 * He did not prove his theory yet; instead, he had found what was then called “The New World. (Modern day North America—various Caribbean islands.
 * Between 1493 and 1504, he made three more voyages and even landing on the mainland in South America in 1498. || Yitzchak kaminetsky ||
 * Alexander VI || * Born on January 1431 and died in 1503
 * Studied law at Bologna
 * Supported the arts and hired Raphael, Michelangelo and Pinturicchio to work for him and paint a suite of rooms in the Vatican.
 * Known as a corrupt pope because of his love for women and the many children they bore him.
 * Was different than most popes due to his kind treatment of Jews.
 * Allowed 9,000 deprived Iberian Jews who arrived at the borders of the Papal States after their expulsion from Spain to continue living their lives without “interference from Christians.”
 * Allowed the immigration of Jews who were expelled from Portugal in 1497. || Hod Marks ||
 * Treaty of Tordesillas || * -The Treaty of Tordesillas was created on June 7, 1494 in Tordesillas, Spain. It was officially approved in July 1494 in Spain, and later in September 1494 in Portugal.
 * -It was originally created to end the dispute following Columbus’s return. The papal bull stated that all land South of the Canary Islands belong to Portugal, but Pope Alexander VI thought certain parts of the land should belong to Spain.
 * -What this treaty did was divide the newly discovered lands outside of Europe that were between the Crown of Portugal and the Crown of Castile.
 * -This line of boundary the treaty created was around halfway between the Portuguese Cape Verde Islands and the islands that Christopher Columbus discovered when he first arrived.
 * -Because of its major effects, both of the original Treaty of Tordesillas are kept safe in Spain and Portugal. || Kayla Gross ||
 * Hernan Cortes || * A Spanish conquistador who set off into the New World in search of gold
 * Also, he wished to spread Christianity within the Aztecs of the land
 * Eventually, he captured the Aztec capital, Tenochtitlan, and Mexico was then named the New Spain
 * Cortes had the ability to defeat the Aztecs because of his military superiority and the alliance systems surrounding the Aztecs
 * Cortes set out on his exploration in the early 16th century
 * Hernan Cortes’s conquest was significant because it allowed for the spreading of religious ideas of the Christians into the New World || Brett Wolff ||
 * Francisco Pizarro || - Leader of the spanish explorers who travelled to North/South America in search of gold and other goods.
 * Northwest Passage || 1. The French believed that they would reach China by sailing through the Atlantic Ocean. They called this route the Northwest Passage.
 * Charles V || - Was the ruler of the Holy Roman Empire ( Italy), the king of Spain as well as lord of the Netherlands and count of Burgundy.
 * Arawak || * Unsophisticated people of the West Indies
 * First natives that Christopher Columbus encountered when he got to the Americas (the Bahamas) in 1492
 * They were described as peaceful, simple, and very trusting people
 * They were very impressed with the Europeans, their technology, and their weapons || Dani Ditchek ||

2. Before Dante, Western European literature and poetry was only written in Latin. 3. Because his poems were in Italian as opposed to Latin, a larger audience was able read his poetry. 4. His most famous poem was the //Divine Comedy//, which narrates his journey of going from hell, to purgatory, and then to heaven. There are those who maintain that the //Divine Comedy// can be interpreted on a much deeper level than its literal meaning. 5. Because of Dante, many poets and writers in the future were influenced to write countless great works of writing. 6. Additionally, many words of modern Italian came from Dante’s poetic dialect. || Ezra Splaver || ii. Michelangelo’s David shows the ideal man: physically and intellectually iii. Statues and art had self-glorification; when the artist increased their own reputation through the art work iv. The artist’s “genius” showed the importance of Renaissance art in society v. Art exemplified the human individual, similar to the Greeks who prioritized the physical attributes of man over everything else || Avi Alpert || Condottieri || * Mercenaries who replaced knights and their equipment. i. 15th Century rulers who stabilized their governments by unifying their nations, created central governments ii. Examples: Ferdinand and Isabella- unified by exiling all other religious except Christianity and weakened the nobles by strengthening central government iii. Henry VII of England- rehabilitated England after War of Roses, brought England out of bankruptcy, eliminated all other competitors to the throne iv. Maintained army, regulated taxing system, enforced religion, managed trading networks, etc… || Avi Alpert || 2. Many historians believe that this marriage united Spain. 3. Not only were Isabella and Ferdinand able to unite Spain as one country, but they were also successful in uniting Spain under one religion - Christianity. 4. In order to accomplish this, in 1478, Isabella and Ferdinand began an inquisition in Spain. 5. During the Spanish Inquisition, many people were accused of secretly practicing another religion. 6. Those people were then questioned, tortured or even killed. 7. In 1492, Isabella and Ferdinand passed the Alhambra Decree, which gave anyone who was non-Christian four months to leave Spain or convert to Christianity. As a result, tens of thousands of non-Christians left Spain. 8. During the same year, Isabella and Ferdinand allowed people to fund for Christopher Columbus’ expedition to the Americas. 9. Because Columbus sailed to the Americas, Spain had control over a large portion of the Americas for over four centuries. || Ezra Splaver || ana Maia Groman || - wrote the Canzoniere and the Trionfi Maia: and Maia Groman || 2. In Milan, 1097, the townspeople violently overthrew their archbishop, who was the ruler of their city. Therefore, the townspeople were able to rule over the city. This city-state was an example of an Italian commune. 3. In many countries in Europe, there were revolts because people were unhappy with their ruler. However, in communes, peace was more frequent because the townspeople were the ones running the government. 4. In the 13th century, nobles and non-nobles (popolo) from other countries came to the communes and fought to have power over them. 5. In many of the communes, nobles and popolo shared their rulership over a commune. They were known as Signori. || Ezra Splaver || > Some Christians took Muslim ideas and Muslims took Christian ideas as a result of the constant war and diffusion of ideas through the war. > Also the wars elicited hatred between the Muslims and Christians that would last for generations. The loss of jews also hurt the Spanish economy amd as a result of gold elsewhere, no strong business enviroment was present. || - moshe markowitz || - Sultan Mehmed II led the 100,000-150,000 Ottoman Turk men to battle against the cities 10,000 me. - The fighting lasted for fifty days which ended in a victory for the Ottomans. - The Ottomans used huge war cannons to destroy the walls and war ships to cut off the cities sea defense. || Ariel Bugay || -His paintings were left undiscovered passed his death in 1510 until the nineteenth century by a group of English artists known as Pre-Raphaelites. || Rachel Petrover || Oops! He is on my list twice. How do the two entries compare??? || * Who: <span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">Leonardo da Vinci was a very famous versatile artist and inventor who firmly believed in the ideas of Humanism. -She was a major patron of the arts and was known by authors as “supreme among women.” Many of her styles were pioneering for her time and her innovative trends were copied by many women of the French Court. -At the age of sixteen, she married Francesco II Gonzaga, Marquess of Mantua in 1490. She served as regent of Mantua during the absence of her husband when he was captured and held in Venice in 1509. Isabella was known to be a much more assertive and competent leader than Francesco and the people preferred her leadership to his.
 * Additional terms: (google these or look in the index of the Hunt text for help with these terms) ||  || Complete approximately 3 of these terms ||
 * || Who or What, where, when, why it is important: || Your name: ||
 * Dante Alighieri, //Divine Comedy// || 1. Dante Alighieri was a 13th century poet, who lived in Italy and was one of the first to write poetry in the vernacular.
 * Individualism || i. The arts in the Renaissance focused on the individual
 * Virtu ||  ||   ||
 * Quattrocento (1400's) || * Is the collective name for the cultural happenings of the 15th century—the transition period from the medieval ages to the renaissance, particularly in the Italian cities of Rome, Florence, Milan, Venice and Naples.
 * Includes the artistic styles of the late medieval period (such as International Gothic) and the Renaissance but shifts away from those styles towards Roman and Greek methods
 * It’s important because it marks a huge change in culture including the arts and the social atmosphere to one that promotes individualism, science, and a revolution || Kayla Petrover ||
 * Secularism || * The separation between the institutions of the government and the people who represent the state through religious institutions
 * In a sense, secularism may give the right to be free from religious rule and the right to be free from governmental imposition of religion upon the people
 * Political views should not be in any way related to religious influence
 * Secularism is derived from the Greeks and the Romans
 * Secularism was seen throughout Europe in the late 16th and early 17th centuries
 * Secularism weakened the religious authority, giving the governmental influence more power || Brett Wolff ||
 * Northern Renaissance || * 1550 ish- 1600
 * After ideas began to develop in the Italian Renaissance, the ideas spread north to places like spain, france, central Europe, and the low Countries; and then they entered a time called the northern renaissance
 * Much interest in the vernacular languages was taken || Maia Groman ||
 * Mannerism || * Mannerism was a time of European art that emerged from the Italian Renaissance.
 * It occurred around the year 1520- 1580 AD.
 * Mannerism in general did not last very long but Northern Mannerism survived until the 17th Century.
 * The style of Mannerism is often shown using harmony and intellectual themes in the paintings.
 * Official Mannerism is being disputed, for many people believe that music and poetry are included. || Talia Blumofe ||
 * Baldassare Cstiglione, //Book of the Courtier// || * A book about courtesy
 * It was published in 1528
 * It is originally written in Italian
 * Baldassare Castiglione wrote it in Italy
 * The book speaks about the components that make up a perfect courtier and lady
 * It also remains as a definitive account of renaissance court life
 * It is considered now to be one of the most important renaissance works
 * It had a great influence on the English upper class’s idea of what an English gentlemen was || Adina Hoffman ||
 * Courtier
 * Began using gunpowder
 * New sword-making technique that made faster swifter and deadlier sabers.
 * These swords could hack into the chinks between the armor to badly wound the enemy.
 * Hired by the city-states and Papacy.
 * Fought against Muslims in the Crusades || Hod Marks ||
 * Great Chain of Being || * The Great Chain of Being is a concept that Plato and Aristotle created, but was brought back again in the Middle ages.
 * It’s a religious hierarchy of all matter (alive and non) that was designed by God.
 * It’s a chain that begins with God, then moves down to angels, stars, moon, then it descends into kings, princes, nobles, men, animals, trees, plants, precious metals and stones and finally minerals.
 * The structure starts at perfection and descends to the least perfect.
 * This concept of reality is mostly based upon permanence- such as god exists in an ever permanent spiritual form, placing Him at the top of the ladder.
 * However the lowest thing on the structure only exists in life, it does not have the attributes of a living creature, who exists and lives, placing it higher than say, a rock. || Talia Blumofe ||
 * New Monarchs || I put these up on time!!!! They just disappeared!
 * Isabella and Ferdinand of Spain || 1. On October 19, 1469, Queen Isabella I of Castile married King Ferdinand II.
 * Louis XI (1423-1483) || * Was born in Bourges, Cher when France only ruled over central and Southern France
 * When his grandmother had to be the person to take action to reclaim the rest of France, Louis’s hate towards his father’s weak spirit grew
 * Married Margaret of Scotland, as was arranged in 1436
 * Rebelled against his father in an uprising called Praguerie, which aimed to control Charles and make Louis Regent. This failed but Charles forgave Louis and later sent him to rule over his own province. This also gave Louis some experience with rebellions, war, and tactics as well as when he led an army in 1444
 * Quickly became king when his father was dying before his brother could claim the thrown. This led to rebellions from his brother
 * Was king from 1461 to 1483 and was known as the Prudent.
 * Also known as the Cunning and the Universal Spider for using plots and schemes, especially to expand his power while minimizing the dukes’ power
 * He’s important because he enlarged France into a stronger country under a more profound government || Kayla Petrover ||
 * Patron, patronage || * Patronage is the support or financial aid that an organization or individual gives to another
 * In Europe during the Renaissance period, patronage referred to the support that kings or popes provided to musicians, painters, and sculptors
 * Because of the growing expansion of the arts, there were more patrons arising during this time period
 * This patronage was seen in Europe between the Medieval and Renaissance periods
 * With this support from the kings in the arts, more artists were able to continue developing their works, making artists during this time period eminent || Brett Wolff ||
 * Pope Julius II || * -Pope Julius II was born on December 5, 1443, and died February 21, 1513 in Italy.
 * -Julius, who was nicknamed “The Fearsome Pope” as well as “The Warrior Pope”, was Pope from 1503 to 1513.
 * - His successor was the famous Leo X.
 * -At first, he was elected as a cardinal, and his uncle was the pope. So with his uncle as pope, he had great influence and even had eight bishoprics, including the archbishop of Avignon.
 * - In 1506 he began the “Swiss Guard”, an organization to provide a constant group of soldiers to protect the pope. He is also known for placing the Republic of Venice under interdict during the “War of the Holy League” and the “Italian Wars”.
 * - Julius is most legendary because of his passionate advocacy of the arts and literature, even with his political and war-pertaining accomplishments. He enjoyed beautifying his land with art. He adored the work of Michelangelo and commissioned many of his works. || Kayla Gross ||
 * Pope Leo X || * 1475-1521
 * he was the pope from 1513- 1521
 * he was born in Italy and he died in Italy
 * he led the church into a great debt by doing massive construction campaigns, military campaigns, and by buying extravagantly for himself
 * he excommunicated Martin Luther
 * he gave King Henry VIII of England the title of “Defender of the faith”- because Henry himself also condemned the works of Martin Luther like Leo X did || Adina Hoffman ||
 * Christine de Pizan, //The book of the City of Ladies// || Maia:
 * This term was not in Chapter 14, it was in 13, but:
 * She was commissioned to write the biography of french king, Charles V
 * She wrote another book, //The Book of the City of Ladies//
 * It was stories about major fiction and realistic women characters in history and presented to the the kings wife, Isabelle of Bavaria
 * De Pizan was very confused by the subjugation of women and the praise in for all that G-d created. He didn't understand who women could be looked down upon and still be one of G-d’s wonderful creation
 * Her mindset was exceedingly modern for her time || Ariel Bugay
 * Caravel ship and lateen sail || * The Caravel ship was sail-ship designed by the portugese in the 15th century.
 * The ship's lateen sails gave the ship added speed and the ability to travel in harsher waters that were never before able to be travelled easily. The ship was also lightweight and highly maneuverable.
 * it had 1-3 masts and a few lateen sails.
 * Before this ship was created all the boats were fragile and unable to sail southward as a result of the strong winds and currents. This ship was the pinnacle of the Iberian Ship development from 1400 to 1600 because it was able to do so.
 * It was based off of the design of fishing boats and was sponsored by Henry the Navigator of Portugal.
 * This ship affected history because it enabled the spice trade between the Portugese and the Spanish.
 * These caravels were used by Portugal to explore the ocean during the age of discovery.
 * One of the major downsides to the boat was that it had a small capacity for cargo and crew. || Moshe Markowitz ||
 * Petrarch || - He was an italian scholar, poet, and one of the first humanists "known as the father of Humanism"
 * Was the first philosopher to to use the word Renaissance in reference to the 15 th century
 * By using this word he shows that himself and the people realized they were living in a time of change and advancements
 * They acknowledged the differences they experienced during the Middles Ages and embrace the revival of the culture || Ariel Bugay
 * Boccaccio, the //Decameron// || * an italian author and poet in the fourteenth century, his most noticeable work being the // Decameron // and his most notable trait being his realistic dialogue
 * he was a friend as well as a student to Petrarch
 * the //Decameron// is a medieval allegory with 100 stories told by ten different young people, and the entire work is a story with in story
 * the stories themes range from tragic to comedic and covers a wide demographic of readers
 * not only did the //Decameron// preserve the vernacular of Florentine, but it served to document fourteenth century life as well || Cherie Landa ||
 * Pico della Mirandola, //Oration on the Dignity of Man// || * Pico della Mirandola was a philosopher of the Renaissance who wrote a famous piece called the //Oration on the Dignity of Man// //where he discussed// the importance of the human quest for knowledge
 * He tried to defend 900 theses on religion and philosophy
 * Mirandola believed that this would provide a complete and sufficient basis for the discovery of all knowledge
 * The //Oration on the Dignity of Man// and his defense of the 900 theses were written in the year 1486
 * Mirandola provided a key text of Renaissance humanism and spread the idea that knowledge is immensely significant || Brett Wolff ||
 * Desiderius Erasmus, his writings ||  ||   ||
 * Miguel de Cervantes, //Don Quixote// || * sixteenth century Spanish novelist, poet, and playwright who's work Don Quixote is considered to be the first European novel and is regarded by many as one of the best works of fiction ever written
 * Miguel de Cervantes was once a soldier in the Spanish Navy, a prisoner in the Crown Jail f Seville, and then a novelist in Madrid.
 * Don Quixote is now used as //the// model comic novel and it was in this work that the phrase "the proof is in the pudding" was coined :P || Cherie Landa ||
 * Florence, Italy || * A city in western central Italy, located on the Arno River.
 * Florence was a leading center of the Italian Renaissance.
 * The Medici family ruled it during the fifteenth century, and they greatly influenced this city. || Yitzchak Kaminetsky ||
 * Lorenzo de Medici || * lived from 1449- 1492
 * he was from Florence
 * he was an Italian merchant- prince who ruled over the Florentine State and a vast commercial empire
 * he was a huge patron of the arts
 * because of this he succeeded to revive and glorify Italian literature
 * he also thrived, throughout his life, in maintaining peace between various Italian states
 * He attempted to merge the ideas of Plato with Christianity
 * He supported the development of humanism || adina hoffman ||
 * condottieri || * Means contractor in Italian but acquired the meaning of military leader because they were the mercenary soldier warlords of the military free companies devised by the Italian city-states and papacy during the late medieval years and the renaissance
 * Because Italian cities such as Venice and Florence were rich yet had a small army, nobles began hiring mercenaries to defend them. Eventually businesses supplying armies of mercenaries were created and the mercenary military leader was called the Condottierie
 * This term is used in many pieces of literature, especially during the Napoleonic times because these Condottieri became of popular use in the Napoleonic wars
 * Many professional, military free companies were created and used, one of the first being the Ventura Companies of Duke Werner von Urslingen and Count Konrad von Landau
 * Condottieri are important because the establishment of professional mercenary armies was a new way of fighting in which people were not reliant on small local armies anymore || Kayla Petrover ||
 * Holy Roman Empire and Habsburgs || * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">The Holy Roman Empire was an empire formed within Germany that united its many city-states into one group approved by the papacy.
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">The Holy Roman Empire was formed under leadership of the Habsburg dynasty. The dynasty began under Rudolph Habsburg in 1273, the leader of the Holy Roman Empire, and lasted into the 1900's.
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">The formation of the empire ended Frederick II's reign, a reign hostile to the papacy, and began the Habsburg reign, which was a friend of the papacy.
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">The Holy Roman Empire fixes Frederick II's mistake of writing his "Statute in Favor of the Princes", which allows German princes to form their own personal city-states, thus fragmenting Germany. This affected the country as a whole because in this state, they would not be able to take any action in unison, without acting in unison, a country would not succeed in any endeavor. || Moshe MArkowitz ||
 * signori (dictators) || * Literally meaning “lord” from the work “Signore”
 * This word was used to describe the government and lordship in many of the Italian city-states during the medieval and renaissance period.
 * In Medieval Europe, the signori were the self-established overpowerers of nobles.
 * During the Renaissance, they were dictators who took control of communal city-states || Yitzchak Kaminetsky ||
 * communes (Italian city-states) || 1. Townspeople of different countries in Western Europe felt as if they did not have enough freedom, so they petitioned to have their own self-government. This government was called a commune.
 * popolo grasso || * group of wealthy merchants and powerful professionals in Florence who controlled trade and city management
 * the wealthier townsmen in Italian communes from the 13th to 15th centuries
 * had a firm grip on Florentine power, despite the popolo minuto’s efforts to expand their own power
 * 1378- required to accept an institutional reform allowing the formation of new Guilds
 * the popolo grasso usually dominated the government and eventually developed its own aristocracy as the old feudal nobility died out
 * The clear division between the popolo grasso and the popolo minuto caused political unease in Italy during that time period and in the future. || Daniella Cohen ||
 * popolo minuto || * Craftsmen and laborers who were forbidden to work in guilds
 * In many communes, you had to be part of a guild in order to run for office, but since these people weren’t part of a guild, they were excluded from serving in the government
 * This lead to dissatisfaction and unrest among these laborers
 * These people started the Revolt of the Ciompi in Florence in 1378, in order to be admitted to guilds which would allow them to hold office
 * By 1382, the popolo minuto’s guilds were abolished and their reforms were reversed || Dani Ditchek ||
 * reconquista- why is reconquista here || * The Reconquista was a time when the Christians drove the Muslims out of the Iberian Peninsula. The Christians began the Reconquista with a small amount of land and slowly regaining strength and with it, constant victory over the Muslims. At Granada, the Christians won the last battle for land on the Iberian Peninsula, ending the Reconquista.
 * The Muslims were lead by Al- Andalus's dynasty and the Christian kingdoms that fought the Muslims were Galicia, Asturias, Navarre, Leon, Portugal, Castile, and Aragon.
 * The Christians fought over the Iberian Peninsula, modern day Spain and Portugal
 * The constant battles of the Reconquista began in 772 at Covadonga and ended in 1492 at Granada.
 * First of all, the war caused economic crisis and because of this Jews were expelled in order to confiscate their land and possessions.
 * Jacob Fugger || * 1459-1525
 * He is also know as Jacob Fugger The Rich
 * Lived in Germany
 * Major merchant, mining entrepreneur, and banker
 * Overtime, he expanded his business all throughout Europe. His family’s business monopolized the trading markets
 * He also greatly influenced politics and the election of Spanish Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor
 * He funded the Germany’s first secular renaissance building
 * He became one of the richest people of all time and built one of the biggest businesses at the time ultimately creating a new path for commercialization || Jessica Griff ||
 * Friar Girolamo Savanarola || * Italian Dominican Friar who stood for Christian renewal and Church reformation
 * Prophesied a biblical flood and civic glory
 * Influenced the Florentines to overthrow the Medici and establish a republic
 * He wished that Florence would become the “new Jerusalem”, the new hub of Christian society.
 * Denounced oppression of the poor, clerical corruption, and dictatorship
 * Denied Pope Alexander VI’s request to join the Holy League against the French and refused to report to Rome. He continued to elaborately defy the pope with processions and dramatic pious productions.
 * Excommunicated by the Pope. Alexander also threatened to place Florence under an interdict.
 * Imprisoned with two lieutenants.
 * Tortured to admit that he had invented his prophecies. In 1498 he and the other friars were condemned, hanged, and burned
 * The Medici eventually reclaimed power after his death
 * Inspired German and Swiss Protestant reformers-- even Martin Luther. Honored in France as well.
 * Became a model of reformed Catholicism || Daniella Cohen ||
 * Louix XI ||  || Yitzchak Kaminetsky ||
 * Ottoman Empire and siege of Constantinople, 1453 || - Constantinople which is the capitol of the Byzantine empire was one of the most heavily fortified cities during that time period
 * Charles V || * Charles V was born February 24, 1500 in Ghent, and died September 21, 1558 in Yuste. He married Isabella of Portugal in 1526.
 * He became the ruler of the Holy Roman Empire in 1519, and ruler of the Spanish Empire in 1516.
 * He abdicated his throne and retired voluntarily in 1556 for his younger brother Ferdinand I, and his son Philip II.
 * Charles V is important because he was the heir of three of Europe’s leading dynasties: the House of Habsburg of the Habsburg Monarchy, the House of Valois- Burgundy of the Burgundian Netherlands, and the House of Trastamara of the Crowns of Castile and Aragon.
 * Much of Charles’ attention during his reign was focused on the Italian- Wars against France and other military- related things such as recapturing Milan and Franche- Comte. Ironically, he was known as a lover of peace.
 * He is most famous for his opposition of the Protestant Reformation, which was the schism within Western Christianity, which was started by Martin Luther and John Calvin in the 16th century. || Kayla Gross ||
 * Pope Alexander IV || * born in Jenne ( territory of Rome, Italy )
 * belongs to the same family as Pope Innocent III and Pope Gregory IX
 * his uncle, Pope Gregory IX gave him lots of positions of authority in the church
 * after the death of Pope Innocent IV, Pope Alexander IV became pope
 * used his papal powers to threaten excommunication and interdict against his guardian’s uncle, Manfred when they made a conspiracy against him
 * Pope Alexander IV tried to reopen and link the Eastern Orthodox Church to the Catholic Church
 * Pope Alexander IV effected the Second Baron’s War because Edmund (one of the sons of King Henry III of England) failed to come up with the necessary money to pay Pope Alexander IV for Sicily, a land which he had granted Edmund, ultimately creating conflict || Emily Firestone ||
 * Pope Julius II || * nicknamed “The Fearsome Pope” and “The Warrior Pope”
 * during his time as pope he had took on building projects and supported the arts
 * educated by the Franciscans but did not share their beliefs
 * his uncle was Pope Sixtus IV which helped elevate his authority from nothing to cardinal and eventually to Pope
 * during his papacy he made peace between families and became liked among the nobles
 * wanted to join France and the Holy Roman Empire
 * succeeded in influencing important kings and emperors to like him
 * created the League of Cambrai of the Holy League with many influential members of society at that time, where the members created an alliance and made decisions that effected politics, culture, and economy of Western Europe || Emily Firestone ||
 * Pope Leo X ||  || Emily Firestone ||
 * Giotto || ## lived from 1266 to 1337
 * 1) he was an Italian painter and architect
 * 2) he is considered to be the first of many great Italian Renaissance painters, including Leonardo Da Vinci
 * 3) he revolutionized art; he started the modern movement of drawing and painting things accurately and to resemble the person or thing after which it was being created
 * 4) his masterpiece rests in the Scrovegni Chapel in Padua, and it is a fresco that depicts the life of the Virgin and of Christ
 * 5) that fresco is regarded as one of the best works of the early Renaissance
 * 6) Key techniques were frescos and PERSPECTIVE. || Jonathan Attias ||
 * Fresco || ## a form of art in which the artist applies fresh plaster onto a wall and immediately afterwards paints with water-based colors onto the fresh plaster so that when it dries it will absorb into the wall and it looks as if it was “built-into” the wall
 * 1) it is the oldest known form of painting
 * 2) it is incredibly durable and can only be worn out by the actual chipping away of the surface on which it is painted
 * 3) frescos made by Michelangelo adorn the Sistine Chapel in the Vatican
 * 4) this method of art became very prominent in Italy during the Renaissance
 * 5) it changed the way art was displayed and influenced the practice in general || Jonathan Attias ||
 * Masaccio || * 1401-1428
 * He was the first great painter of the Quattrocento period of the Italian Renaissance
 * He is famous for his great skill at recreating lifelike statues and his sense for three-dimensional figures
 * Although he lived such a short life, he had a major influence on later artists. They studied his art in order to learn the technique and rules for painting well.
 * Masaccio transformed the direction of Italian paintings by veering away from Gothic art, and for the first time, presenting art as more naturalistic || Jessica Griff ||
 * Botticelli || * Alessandro de Mariano di Vanni Fillipepi, better known as Sandro Botticelli was a famous Italian painter during the early Italian Renaissance and was born in Florence in 1445.
 * His brother originally trained him as a goldsmith, and became an apprentice at the age of fourteen.
 * Botticelli’s passions guided him to the arts thus he joined the Florentine School led by Lorenz de Medici. He helped decorate the Sistine Chapel in Rome and major churches in Florence. His paintings were truly original and changed the arts and painting style during the Renaissance.
 * Donatello || * Donato di Niccolo di Betto Bardi (known as Donatello) was born in 1386 and died December 13, 1466.
 * He was an early Renaissance Italian sculptor and artist from Florence.
 * He was a part of the Florentine Wool Combers Guild.
 * Apparently, he received his artistic training while he was young, in a goldsmith’s workshop. He later worked briefly with Lorenzo Ghiberti. He continued to earn a living by working in goldsmiths’ shops.
 * One reason he is important is because he created various works which are famous today, such as “St. Mark”, “St. George Tabernacle”, and “virgin and Child with Four Angels”.
 * Donatello’s sculptures are considered expressions of the spirit of this era. || Kayla Gross ||
 * Brunelleschi (Dome of the Cathedral of Florence) || * Florentine architect Brunelleschi designed the Dome after the ancient ruins of Rome, a hospital for orphans, and the interior of many local florentine churches
 * it remains the largest brick church ever constructed till today
 * he based the structure of the dome on the dome in the parthenon--however, the formula for constructing such a thing had been long forgotten. So Donatello helped him create a model that would serve as a guide for the builders.
 * he designed several machines to lift, move, and hoist heavy materials for the dome's advanced structure-- these and hist structural innovations are his main contribution to architecture
 * he crowned the dome with a bronze lantern which was replaced several times. || cherie landa ||
 * Leonardo da Vinci
 * <span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">He is considered one of the greatest artists of all time, due to the depth of his work and the passion and imagination he brought to each piece. His works showed the style used the Renaissance.
 * <span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">His more famous works consist of the //Mona Lisa//, //The Last Supper//, //Virgin of the Rocks//, and the //Vitruvian Man//.
 * <span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">He came up with certain concepts for inventions such as: the helicopter, the tank, and the calculator.
 * <span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">Where: He lived in Florence, in what would be present-day Italy.
 * <span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">When: He lived from April 15, 1452 until May 2, 1519.
 * <span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">Why is it important: Da Vinci was important because he made many discoveries in science and created genius ideas that helped create different inventions. His works influenced other artists’ works. For example, his painting, //<span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">Virgin and Child with St. Anne, //<span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">influenced artists like Michelangelo and Raphael. || Michali Mazor ||
 * chiarrusco || * Italian term in art literally meaning light-dark
 * A technique using contrasting colors to highlight different forms in a picture
 * This started in the Renaissance referring to drawings on paper
 * This technique then expanded to woodcuttings
 * The term is now applied to many forms of art || Dani Ditchek ||
 * sfumato || ## one of the four main modes of painting used during the Renaissance
 * 1) Leonardo Da Vinci was the most prestigious practitioner of this technique
 * 2) the //Mona Lisa// was painted using this painting style
 * 3) it is characterized by the lack of hard lines or outlines and instead blending together the two objects
 * 4) produces soft transition of color and gives a realistic aspect to the person in the painting
 * 5) Tough one to understand - this is good, don't spend a lot of time on it. || Jonathan Attias ||
 * Jan van Eyck || * Born in Maaseik in 1390, Jan van Eyck was a Flemish painter and was considered one of the most significant Northern European painters in the Fifteenth century.
 * He served royalty such as Phillip the Good, John of Bavaria, Zeeburg, and many others.
 * While working for John of Bavaria, he assembled a workshop and began redecorating the Binnenhof Palace in The Hague. After the death of John in 1425, Jan decided to move to Bruges and caught the attention of Phillip the Good.
 * He joined esteemed artists such as Robert Campin in the Tournai Painter’s Guild and worked as Phillip’s royal artist and diplomat.
 * He used many oil paints and his designs were heavily copied and reproduced for its originality.
 * His motto “Als Ik Kan” “As I Can” first appeared in 1433 in his //Portrait of a Man in a// Turban and is still well known today.
 * He died young in July of 1441 leaving the rest of his paintings to be finished by his apprentices. || Rachel Petrover ||
 * Raphael || * <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">Who: Raphael was a famous artist that lived in the Renaissance period.
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">He worked in the Catholic Church with two popes. He was instructed to paint part of the Vatican Palace.
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">A lot of his paintings contained religious references. For example, //Madonna and Child// -- a painting of Jesus and Mary.
 * //<span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">The School of Athens //<span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">is his most famous work//.// Is this one religious? Where is it, why is it so important (symbolizes something for this class).
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">Where: He was from Florence, Italy.
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">When: He lived from April 6 or March 28, 1483 until April 6, 1520. (Opinions differ as to when he was born. Some say he was born on April 6 and died on his birthday, while others believe that he died on Good Friday, which was March 28.)
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">Why it is important: His works show the style of this time period. His works were important because they make places like the Vatican Palace holier by adding in his artwork. Hint to my question above - maybe the opposite is true!
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;"> This shows the change that occurred before this time period, where the architecture and the art was less sophisticated. In the Renaissance, the art became more realistic and vibrant. And our question is - why did the art change??? Why did they care about making art that was more realistic? || Michali Mazor ||
 * Michelangelo || * <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">Who: Michelangelo was a famous artist and architect that lived during the Renaissance period.
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">His most famous works include the //David//, the //Pieta//, and his work in the Sistine chapel called //The Last Judgment.//
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">He was considered one of the greatest artists of that time period. He was even called “the divine one”.
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">Where: He lived in Caprese, Italy, which would be modern-day Tuscany.
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">When: He was born <span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">March 6, 1475 and died February 18, 1564.
 * <span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">Why is it important: He, like da Vinci and Raphael, had major influence on the artwork of the Renaissance period. He was a very renowned artist, in that time as well as now.
 * <span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">His work played an important role in the church. He created a masterpiece that is visited by many even in modern times. His work influenced many other artists, such as Raphael.
 * <span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">Also, his artwork influenced the beginning of Mannerism. ​Good point. || Michali Mazor ||
 * Isabella d'Este || -Born in Mantua and lived from May 19th, 1474-February 13th, 1539, Isabella d'Este was one of the leading ladies in the Italian Renaissance.
 * Upon his arrival back home, Francesco was humiliated that his wife was superior politically therefore their marriage began to break down and Isabella lived and travelled by herself until her death in 1539. || Rachel Petrover ||